Telegeography Submarine Cable Map Pdf
How does one go about keeping track of nearly 400 submarine cable systems and over 1,000 landing stations?Carefully, with lots of precise, year-round tracking, as it turns out.Today, TeleGeography’s mapmakers share their experiences designing their, as well as the interactive www.submarinecablemap.com.Rome Wasn’t Built in a Day, and Neither Was the TeleGeography Submarine Cable MapDifferent maps have different timelines. For TeleGeography’s flagship submarine cable map, it takes almost an entire year to conceptualize, design, and proof this annual piece. Collecting inspiration is 24/7 affair, but the team generally decides on a theme and aesthetic by October of a calendar year.For the next six months, Head Designer and Cartographer Larry Lairson and Vice President of Systems and Design Markus Krisetya lead the way, drafting new takes—and often, new cables.Leveraging the submarine cable expertise of Alan Mauldin and Tim Stronge, by the beginning of the next year a final draft takes shape.
Submarine cables are laid using special ships, such as the modern , operated by.A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the between land-based stations to carry signals across stretches of ocean and sea. The first submarine communications cables laid beginning in the 1850s carried traffic, establishing the first instant telecommunications links between continents, such as the first which became operational on 16 August 1858.
Subsequent generations of cables carried traffic, then traffic. Modern cables use technology to carry, which includes telephone, and private data traffic.Modern cables are typically about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter and weigh around 2.5 tons per mile (1.4 tonnes per km) for the deep-sea sections which comprise the majority of the run, although larger and heavier cables are used for shallow-water sections near shore.
Submarine cables first connected all the world's (except ) when was connected to, Australia in 1871 in anticipation of the completion of the in 1872 connecting to and thence to the rest of Australia. Contents.Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables First successful trials After and had introduced their in 1839, the idea of a submarine line across the began to be thought of as a possible triumph of the future. Proclaimed his faith in it as early as 1840, and in 1842, he submerged a wire, insulated with tarred and, in the water of, and telegraphed through it. The following autumn, Wheatstone performed a similar experiment in.
A good to cover the wire and prevent the electric current from leaking into the water was necessary for the success of a long submarine line. Had been tried by, the, as far back as the early 19th century.Another insulating gum which could be melted by heat and readily applied to wire made its appearance in 1842., the adhesive juice of the tree, was introduced to Europe by, a in the service of the.: 26–27 Twenty years earlier, Montgomerie had seen whips made of gutta-percha in, and he believed that it would be useful in the fabrication of surgical apparatus.
And Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from to. It was tried on a wire laid across the between. In 1849, electrician to the, submerged a two-mile wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully.: 26–27 First commercial cables. A of the British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Co.
1862).In August 1850, having earlier obtained a concession from the French government, 's laid the first line across the, using the converted Goliath. Main article:The first attempt at laying a transatlantic telegraph cable was promoted by, who persuaded British industrialists to fund and lay one in 1858. However, the technology of the day was not capable of supporting the project; it was plagued with problems from the outset, and was in operation for only a month. Subsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 with the world's largest steamship, the, used a more advanced technology and produced the first successful transatlantic cable. Great Eastern later went on to lay the first cable reaching to India from Aden, Yemen, in 1870.British dominance of early cable. Operators in the submarine telegraph cable room at the 's Central Telegraph Office in London c.
1898From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the most important market, the. The British had both supply side and demand side advantages. In terms of supply, Britain had entrepreneurs willing to put forth enormous amounts of capital necessary to build, lay and maintain these cables.
In terms of demand, led to business for the cable companies from news agencies, trading and shipping companies, and the British government. Many of Britain's colonies had significant populations of European settlers, making news about them of interest to the general public in the home country.British officials believed that depending on telegraph lines that passed through non-British territory posed a security risk, as lines could be cut and messages could be interrupted during wartime. They sought the creation of a worldwide network within the empire, which became known as the, and conversely prepared strategies to quickly interrupt enemy communications. Britain's very first action after declaring war on Germany in World War I was to have the (not the CS as frequently reported) cut the five cables linking Germany with France, Spain and the Azores, and through them, North America. Thereafter, the only way Germany could communicate was by wireless, and that meant that could listen in.The submarine cables were an economic benefit to trading companies, because owners of ships could communicate with captains when they reached their destination and give directions as to where to go next to pick up cargo based on reported pricing and supply information.
The British government had obvious uses for the cables in maintaining administrative communications with governors throughout its empire, as well as in engaging other nations diplomatically and communicating with its military units in wartime. The geographic location of British territory was also an advantage as it included both Ireland on the east side of the Atlantic Ocean and Newfoundland in North America on the west side, making for the shortest route across the ocean, which reduced costs significantly.A few facts put this dominance of the industry in perspective. In 1896, there were thirty cable-laying ships in the world, twenty-four of which were owned by British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent.
During, Britain's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany's cables worldwide. Cable to India, Singapore, Far East and Australia. Eastern Telegraph Company network in 1901. Dotted lines across the Pacific indicate then-planned cables laid in 1902–03.Throughout the 1860s and 1870s, British cable expanded eastward, into the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. An 1863 cable to Bombay (now ), India, provided a crucial link to. In 1870, Bombay was linked to London via submarine cable in a combined operation by four cable companies, at the behest of the British Government. In 1872, these four companies were combined to form the mammoth globe-spanning, owned.
A spin-off from Eastern Telegraph Company was a second sister company, the Eastern Extension, China and Australasia Telegraph Company, commonly known simply as 'the Extension'. In 1872, Australia was linked by cable to Bombay via Singapore and China and in 1876, the cable linked the British Empire from London to New Zealand. Submarine cables across the Pacific The first trans-Pacific cables providing telegraph service were completed in 1902 and 1903, linking the US mainland to Hawaii in 1902 and Guam to the Philippines in 1903.
Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji were also linked in 1902 with the trans-Pacific segment of the. Japan was connected into the system in 1906. Service beyond Midway Atoll was abandoned in 1941 because of WWII, but the remainder remained in operation until 1951 when the FCC gave permission to cease operations.The first trans-Pacific telephone cable was laid from Hawaii to Japan in 1964, with an extension from Guam to The Philippines. Also in 1964, the Commonwealth Pacific (COMPAC) cable, with 80 telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic from Sydney to Vancouver, and in 1967, the South East Asia Commonwealth (SEACOM) system, with 160 telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic. This system used microwave radio from Sydney to Cairns (Queensland), cable running from to , (capital of, Malaysia), then overland by microwave radio to. In 1991, the was the first regenerative system (i.e.
With ) to completely cross the Pacific from the US mainland to Japan. The US portion of NPC was manufactured in Portland, Oregon, from 1989 to 1991 at STC Submarine Systems, and later Alcatel Submarine Networks. The system was laid by Cable & Wireless Marine on the Cable Venture.Construction Transatlantic cables of the 19th century consisted of an outer layer of iron and later steel wire, wrapping India rubber, wrapping, which surrounded a multi-stranded copper wire at the core. The portions closest to each shore landing had additional protective armor wires. Gutta-percha, a natural polymer similar to rubber, had nearly ideal properties for insulating submarine cables, with the exception of a rather high constant which made cable high.
Gutta-percha was not replaced as a cable insulation until was introduced in the 1930s. Even then, the material was only available to the military and the first submarine cable using it was not laid until 1945 during across the. In the 1920s, the American military experimented with rubber-insulated cables as an alternative to gutta-percha, since American interests controlled significant supplies of rubber but did not have easy access to gutta-percha manufacturers. The 1926 development by of deproteinized rubber improved the impermeability of cables to water.Many early cables suffered from attack by sealife. The insulation could be eaten, for instance, by species of (shipworm). Laid between the gave pests a route to eat their way in.
Damaged armouring, which was not uncommon, also provided an entrance. Cases of biting cables and attacks by have been recorded. In one case in 1873, a whale damaged the Persian Gulf Cable between. The whale was apparently attempting to use the cable to clean off at a point where the cable descended over a steep drop. The unfortunate whale got its tail entangled in loops of cable and drowned. The cable repair ship Amber Witch was only able to winch up the cable with difficulty, weighed down as it was with the dead whale's body. Bandwidth problems Early long-distance submarine telegraph cables exhibited formidable electrical problems.
Unlike modern cables, the technology of the 19th century did not allow for in-line in the cable. Large were used to attempt to overcome the of their tremendous length but the cables' distributed and combined to distort the telegraph pulses in the line, reducing the cable's, severely limiting the for telegraph operation to 10–12.As early as 1816, had observed that electric signals were retarded in passing through an insulated wire or core laid underground, and outlined the cause to be induction, using the analogy of a long. The same effect was noticed by (1853) on cores immersed in water, and particularly on the lengthy cable between England and The Hague. Showed that the effect was caused by capacitance between the wire and the (or water) surrounding it.
Faraday had noticed that when a wire is charged from a battery (for example when pressing a telegraph key), the in the wire induces an opposite charge in the water as it travels along. In 1831, Faraday described this effect in what is now referred to as. As the two charges attract each other, the exciting charge is retarded.
The core acts as a distributed along the length of the cable which, coupled with the resistance and of the cable, limits the speed at which a travels through the of the cable.Early cable designs failed to analyze these effects correctly. Famously, had dismissed the problems and insisted that a transatlantic cable was feasible. When he subsequently became electrician of the, he became involved in a public dispute with. Whitehouse believed that, with enough voltage, any cable could be driven. Because of the excessive voltages recommended by Whitehouse, Cyrus West Field's first transatlantic cable never worked reliably, and eventually to the ocean when Whitehouse increased the voltage beyond the cable design limit.Thomson designed a complex electric-field generator that minimized current by the cable, and a sensitive light-beam for detecting the faint telegraph signals. Thomson became wealthy on the royalties of these, and several related inventions.
Thomson was elevated to for his contributions in this area, chiefly an accurate of the cable, which permitted design of the equipment for accurate telegraphy. The effects of and the on submarine cables also motivated many of the.Thomson had produced a mathematical analysis of propagation of electrical signals into telegraph cables based on their capacitance and resistance, but since long submarine cables operated at slow rates, he did not include the effects of inductance. By the 1890s, had produced the modern general form of the, which included the effects of inductance and which were essential to extending the theory of to higher required for high-speed data and voice.Transatlantic telephony.
Submarine communication cables crossing the Scottish shore at Scad Head on,.While laying a transatlantic telephone cable was seriously considered from the 1920s, the technology required for economically feasible telecommunications was not developed until the 1940s. A first attempt to lay a telephone cable failed in the early 1930s due to the.In 1942, of, London in conjunction with the, adapted submarine communications cable technology to create the world's first submarine oil pipeline in during.(Transatlantic No. 1) was the first system. Between 1955 and 1956, cable was laid between Gallanach Bay, near, Scotland. It was inaugurated on September 25, 1956, initially carrying 36 telephone channels.In the 1960s, transoceanic cables were that transmitted. A high voltage direct current on the inner conductor powered repeaters (two-way amplifiers placed at intervals along the cable). The first-generation repeaters remain among the most reliable amplifiers ever designed.
Later ones were transistorized. Many of these cables are still usable, but have been abandoned because their capacity is too small to be commercially viable. Some have been used as scientific instruments to measure earthquake waves and other geomagnetic events. Modern history Optical telephone cables External image of sea cables. 2007 map of submarine cables In the 1980s, were developed. The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was, which went into operation in 1988.
A fiber-optic cable comprises multiple pairs of fibers. Each pair has one fiber in each direction.
TAT-8 had two operational pairs and one backup pair.Modern optical fiber repeaters use a solid-state, usually an. Each repeater contains separate equipment for each fiber.
These comprise signal reforming, error measurement and controls. A solid-state laser dispatches the signal into the next length of fiber. The solid-state laser excites a short length of doped fiber that itself acts as a laser amplifier. As the light passes through the fiber, it is amplified. This system also permits, which dramatically increases the capacity of the fiber.Repeaters are powered by a constant direct current passed down the conductor near the center of the cable, so all repeaters in a cable are in series. Power feed equipment is installed at the terminal stations. Typically both ends share the current generation with one end providing a positive voltage and the other a negative voltage.
A point exists roughly halfway along the cable under normal operation. The amplifiers or repeaters derive their power from the potential difference across them.The optic fiber used in undersea cables is chosen for its exceptional clarity, permitting runs of more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) between repeaters to minimize the number of amplifiers and the distortion they cause.
Diagram of an optical submarine cable repeaterThe rising demand for these fiber-optic cables outpaced the capacity of providers such as AT&T. Having to shift traffic to satellites resulted in poorer quality signals. To address this issue, AT&T had to improve its cable laying abilities. It invested $100 million in producing two specialized fiber-optic cable laying vessels. These included laboratories in the ships for splicing cable and testing its electrical properties. Such field monitoring is important because the glass of fiber-optic cable is less malleable than the copper cable that had been formerly used. The ships are equipped with that increase maneuverability.
This capability is important because fiber-optic cable must be laid straight from the stern (another factor copper cable laying ships did not have to contend with).Originally, submarine cables were simple point-to-point connections. With the development of (SBUs), more than one destination could be served by a single cable system. Modern cable systems now usually have their fibers arranged in a to increase their redundancy, with the submarine sections following different paths on the ocean floor. One reason for this development was that the capacity of cable systems had become so large that it was not possible to completely backup a cable system with satellite capacity, so it became necessary to provide sufficient terrestrial back-up capability.
A map of active and anticipated submarine communications cables servicing the African continent.Almost all fiber optic cables from TAT-8 in 1988 until approximately 1997 were constructed by 'consortia' of operators. For example, TAT-8 counted 35 participants including most major international carriers at the time such as. Two privately financed, non-consortium cables were constructed in the late 1990s, which preceded a massive, speculative rush to construct privately financed cables that peaked in more than $22 billion worth of investment between 1999 and 2001. This was followed by the bankruptcy and reorganization of cable operators such as, and Asia Global Crossing.There has been an increasing tendency in recent years to expand submarine cable capacity in the (the previous bias always having been to lay communications cable across the Atlantic Ocean which separates the United States and Europe). For example, between 1998 and 2003, approximately 70% of undersea fiber-optic cable was laid in the Pacific.
This is in part a response to the emerging significance of Asian markets in the global economy.Although much of the investment in submarine cables has been directed toward developed markets such as the transatlantic and transpacific routes, in recent years there has been an increased effort to expand the submarine cable network to serve the developing world. For instance, in July 2009, an underwater fiber optic cable line plugged into the broader Internet. The company that provided this new cable was, which is 75% owned by Africans. The project was delayed by a month due to increased along the coast. Antarctica Antarctica is the only continent not yet reached by a submarine telecommunications cable.
All phone, video, and e-mail traffic must be relayed to the rest of the world via links that have limited availability and capacity. Bases on the continent itself are able to communicate with one another via, but this is only a local network. To be a viable alternative, a fiber-optic cable would have to be able to withstand temperatures of −80 °C (−112 °F) as well as massive strain from ice flowing up to 10 metres (33 ft) per year.
Thus, plugging into the larger Internet backbone with the high bandwidth afforded by fiber-optic cable is still an as-yet infeasible economic and technical challenge in the Antarctic. Cable repair.
An animation showing a method used to repair submarine communications cables.Cables can be broken by, anchors, earthquakes, and even shark bites. Based on surveying breaks in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, it was found that between 1959 and 1996, fewer than 9% were due to natural events.
In response to this threat to the communications network, the practice of cable burial has developed. The average incidence of cable faults was 3.7 per 1,000 km (620 mi) per year from 1959 to 1979.
That rate was reduced to 0.44 faults per 1,000 km per year after 1985, due to widespread burial of cable starting in 1980. Still, cable breaks are by no means a thing of the past, with more than 50 repairs a year in the Atlantic alone, and significant breaks in, and 2009.The propensity for fishing trawler nets to cause cable faults may well have been exploited during the. For example, in February 1959, a series of 12 breaks occurred in five American trans-Atlantic communications cables. In response, a United States naval vessel, the, detained and investigated the Soviet trawler Novorosiysk. A review of the ship's log indicated it had been in the region of each of the cables when they broke. Broken sections of cable were also found on the deck of the Novorosiysk.
It appeared that the cables had been dragged along by the ship's nets, and then cut once they were pulled up onto the deck to release the nets. The Soviet Union's stance on the investigation was that it was unjustified, but the United States cited the of 1884 to which Russia had signed (prior to the formation of the Soviet Union) as evidence of violation of international protocol.Shore stations can locate a break in a cable by electrical measurements, such as through (SSTDR). SSTDR is a type of time-domain reflectometry that can be used in live environments very quickly. Presently, SSTDR can collect a complete data set in 20 ms. Spread spectrum signals are sent down the wire and then the reflected signal is observed. It is then correlated with the copy of the sent signal and algorithms are applied to the shape and timing of the signals to locate the break.A cable repair ship will be sent to the location to drop a marker buoy near the break.
Several types of are used depending on the situation. If the sea bed in question is sandy, a grapple with rigid prongs is used to plough under the surface and catch the cable. If the cable is on a rocky sea surface, the grapple is more flexible, with hooks along its length so that it can adjust to the changing surface. In especially deep water, the cable may not be strong enough to lift as a single unit, so a special grapple that cuts the cable soon after it has been hooked is used and only one length of cable is brought to the surface at a time, whereupon a new section is spliced in.
The repaired cable is longer than the original, so the excess is deliberately laid in a 'U' shape on the seabed. A can be used to repair cables that lie in shallower waters.A number of ports near important cable routes became homes to specialised cable repair ships., was home to a half dozen such vessels for most of the 20th century including long-lived vessels such as the Cyrus West Field, CS Minia. The latter two were contracted to recover victims from the.
The crews of these vessels developed many new techniques and devices to repair and improve cable laying, such as the '.Intelligence gathering Underwater cables, which cannot be kept under constant surveillance, have tempted intelligence-gathering organizations since the late 19th century. Frequently at the beginning of wars, nations have cut the cables of the other sides to redirect the information flow into cables that were being monitored. The most ambitious efforts occurred in, when British and German forces systematically attempted to destroy the others' worldwide communications systems by cutting their cables with surface ships or submarines. During the, the and (NSA) succeeded in placing wire taps on Soviet underwater communication lines in.Environmental impact The main point of interaction of cables with marine life is in the of the oceans where the majority of cable lies.
Studies in 2003 and 2006 indicated that cables pose minimal impacts on life in these environments. In sampling sediment cores around cables and in areas removed from cables, there were few statistically significant differences in organism diversity or abundance. The main difference was that the cables provided an attachment point for anemones that typically could not grow in soft sediment areas. Data from 1877 to 1955 showed a total of 16 cable faults caused by the entanglement of various. Such deadly entanglements have entirely ceased with improved techniques for placement of modern coaxial and fiber-optic cables which have less tendency to self-coil when lying on the seabed.
Security implications Submarine cables are problematic from the security perspective because maps of submarine cables are widely available. Publicly available maps are necessary so that shipping can avoid damaging vulnerable cables by accident. However, the availability of the locations of easily damaged cables means the information is also easily accessible to criminal agents. Governmental wiretapping also presents cybersecurity issues.
Legal issues Submarine cables are suffering from the inherent issue stemming from the historically established practice of cable laying. Since the cable connection is usually done by the private consortiums, there is a problem with responsibility in the beginning. Firstly, deciding the responsibility inside consortium can prove tricky on itself, since there is not a one clearly leading company which could be designed as responsible it could lead to confusion when it is needed to decide who should be taking care about the cable. Comic reader mobi apk. Secondly, it is hard to navigate the issue of cable damage through the international legal regime, since the regime was signed by and design for the states, not for private companies.
Thus it is hard to decide who should be responsible for the damage costs and repairs, the company who built the cable, the company who paid the cable, the government from where the cable originated, or the government where the cable ends.Another legal issue from which is the internal submarine cable regime suffering is the ageing of the legal system, for example, Australia still uses the fines which were priced during the signing of the 1884 submarine cable treaty and sides which commits transgressions over the cables are fined with, for today almost irrelevant, 2000 Australian dollars. Influence of cable networks on modern history Submarine communication cables have had a wide variety of influences over society.
As well as allowing effective intercontinental trading and supporting stock exchanges, they greatly influenced international diplomatic conduct. Before the existence of submarine communication connection diplomats had much more power in their hands since their direct supervisors (governments of the countries which they represented) could not immediately check on them. Getting instructions to the diplomats in a foreign country often took weeks or even months. Diplomats had to use their own initiative in negotiations with foreign countries with only an occasional check from their government. This slow connection resulted in diplomats engaging in leisure activities while they waited for orders. The expansion of telegraph cables greatly reduced the response time needed to instruct diplomats. Over time, this led to a general decrease in prestige and power of individual diplomats within international politics and signalled a professionalization of the diplomatic corps who had to abandon their leisure activities.
Notable events During testing of the TAT-8 fibre cable conducted by AT&T in the Canary Islands area, shark bite damage to the cable occurred. This revealed that sharks will dive to depths of one kilometre, a depth which surprised marine biologists who until then thought that sharks were not active at such depths.The broke a series of trans-Atlantic cables by triggering a massive undersea mudslide. The sequence of breaks helped scientists chart the progress of the mudslide.In July 2005, a portion of the submarine cable located 35 kilometres (22 mi) south of that provided 's major outer communications became defective, disrupting almost all of Pakistan's communications with the rest of the world, and affecting approximately 10 million Internet users.On 26 December 2006, the rendered numerous cables between and inoperable.In March 2007, stole an 11-kilometre (7 mi) section of the submarine cable that connected, and, afflicting Vietnam's Internet users with far slower speeds. The thieves attempted to sell the 100 tons of cable as scrap.The was a series of cable outages, two of the three cables, two disruptions in the, and one in Malaysia. It caused massive communications disruptions to and the.In April 2010, the undersea cable was under an outage., TechTeleData. 2010-12-23 at the – annotated image, The Guardian.
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Nicole Starosielski (2015). The Undersea Network (Sign, Storage, Transmission). Duke University Press.External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to. – includes a register of submarine cables worldwide (though not always updated as often as one might hope).Articles.
Account of how U.S. Government discovered strategic significance of communications lines, including submarine cables, during World War I.Maps Wikimedia Commons has media related to.
(source: TeleGeography)., showing evolution since 2000.;.